Agape: Self-sacrifice or Mutuality?
Ever since Anders Nygren (Agape and Eros), the Christian conception of love has been basically equated with self-sacrifice. This conception is rooted in a Christology in which Jesus gives himself over for those whom he loves. However, some have contested this conception and prefer to define love in terms of mutuality. This mutuality is in turn rooted in the doctrine of the Trinity. The Gospel Beyond Belief, with its emphasis on the obedience of Jesus, falls on the mutuality side. Jesus’ death on the cross was not just his self-giving for sinners but operated in a mutual relationship with the Father. The Gospels tell the story of Jesus’ death with an eye on Jesus’ relationship to the Father. For example, in Gethsemane Jesus conceives of his death as God’s will and his submission to that fate as his willingness to obey. It’s clear that Jesus thought that his death played a part in God’s plan, a plan that included Jesus, for after Gethsemane Jesus states that he will be seated at the right hand of God. This is to say that Jesus’ death, while a self-sacrificial happening, cannot be solely conceived in terms of self-sacrifice but also in terms of mutuality. Of course, this isn’t to say that self-sacrifice is not a crucial component in mutuality, but it is to say that it is not the last word.
Agape and Wrath
Once one defines love (agape) as self-sacrifice, then one has a hard time reconciling God’s love and God’s wrath. If God is love and is always sacrificing his agenda for those whom he loves, then there is precious little room for wrath. However, if agape is viewed in terms of mutuality then wrath is the expression of a failure in mutuality.
Wednesday, July 14, 2010
Sunday, July 11, 2010
Pacifism and the Lamb in Revelation
Introduction
I want to question the pacifist reading of Revelation by analyzing the use of the “Lamb” Christology. I hope to show that the Lamb Christology is meant to provide an example for a pacifist Christian response in the here and now (the “Tribulation and Persecution” stage) but is not meant to apply to the divine violence we find at the end (the “Wrath and Judgment” stage).
The Pacifist Reading of Divine Violence in Revelation
The pacifist reading of the divine violence in Revelation is to claim that it is only figurative and that the only way Jesus confronts evil is by being “lamblike”. For example, advocates of the pacifist reading find it very significant that in 19:11-21, a passage where Jesus is viewed as Divine Warrior, there is no actual description of a battle. As another example, they will point out that in chapter five the lion motif is replace by the lamb (5:5—lion; 5:6—lamb).
I agree that the lamb motif is meant to provide Christians with an example to follow in the here and now. However, this example does not pertain to how God/Jesus deals with evil at the eschatological end. To show this I want to analyze the use of the term “lamb” in Revelation.
The Use of “Lamb” in Revelation
There are 28 references to Jesus as a lamb in Revelation (a 29th involves a pseudo-Christ=13:11): 5:6, 8, 12, 13; 6:1, 16; 7:9, 10, 14, 17; 12:11; 13:8, 11; 14:1, 4(x2), 10; 15:3; 17:14(x2); 19:7, 9; 21:9, 14, 22, 23, 27; 22:1, 3. The distribution of this term in the structure of Revelation is highly significant. In part one of my blog, I claimed that there are basically three time periods in Revelation:
1. Tribulation and Persecution
2. Wrath and Judgment
3. Salvation
I argue that “lamb” is used mainly in stage one and is largely absent in stage two. This is a significant indication that the divine violence we find in stage two is not easily swept under the pacifist rug. This makes sense. Christians are to be pacifists in the here and now precisely because evil will be dealt with by divine powers at the end (Deuteronomy 32:35, Romans 12:19). If this is the logic of Revelation, and a strong argument can be made that it is, then the pacifist reading is in trouble.
There are heavenly worship scenes in Revelation (4:1-5:14, 7:1-17; 10:1-11:14; 14:1-20; 15:1-4; 19:1-10, 21:9-22:5). Of the 28 references to the lamb, 22 appear in those sections. I claim that those scenes are meant to remind persecuted Christians of heavenly realities and encourage them to imitate the Lamb in the face of evil powers. Significantly, in those passages directly related to wrath (the trumpets, bowls and 19:11-21:8) there are zero references to the Lamb. I think the reason for this is obvious, in the wrath scenes Christians are not given a model of imitation. Rather, they are only given a vision of justice to comfort them in their suffering.
Theological Upshot
I think Revelation gives Pacifists what they really want: human pacifism; but it also gives non-pacifists what they really want: real justice. I believe that when pacifism turns into idolatry bad consequences can follow just as much as anything idolatrous.
I want to question the pacifist reading of Revelation by analyzing the use of the “Lamb” Christology. I hope to show that the Lamb Christology is meant to provide an example for a pacifist Christian response in the here and now (the “Tribulation and Persecution” stage) but is not meant to apply to the divine violence we find at the end (the “Wrath and Judgment” stage).
The Pacifist Reading of Divine Violence in Revelation
The pacifist reading of the divine violence in Revelation is to claim that it is only figurative and that the only way Jesus confronts evil is by being “lamblike”. For example, advocates of the pacifist reading find it very significant that in 19:11-21, a passage where Jesus is viewed as Divine Warrior, there is no actual description of a battle. As another example, they will point out that in chapter five the lion motif is replace by the lamb (5:5—lion; 5:6—lamb).
I agree that the lamb motif is meant to provide Christians with an example to follow in the here and now. However, this example does not pertain to how God/Jesus deals with evil at the eschatological end. To show this I want to analyze the use of the term “lamb” in Revelation.
The Use of “Lamb” in Revelation
There are 28 references to Jesus as a lamb in Revelation (a 29th involves a pseudo-Christ=13:11): 5:6, 8, 12, 13; 6:1, 16; 7:9, 10, 14, 17; 12:11; 13:8, 11; 14:1, 4(x2), 10; 15:3; 17:14(x2); 19:7, 9; 21:9, 14, 22, 23, 27; 22:1, 3. The distribution of this term in the structure of Revelation is highly significant. In part one of my blog, I claimed that there are basically three time periods in Revelation:
1. Tribulation and Persecution
2. Wrath and Judgment
3. Salvation
I argue that “lamb” is used mainly in stage one and is largely absent in stage two. This is a significant indication that the divine violence we find in stage two is not easily swept under the pacifist rug. This makes sense. Christians are to be pacifists in the here and now precisely because evil will be dealt with by divine powers at the end (Deuteronomy 32:35, Romans 12:19). If this is the logic of Revelation, and a strong argument can be made that it is, then the pacifist reading is in trouble.
There are heavenly worship scenes in Revelation (4:1-5:14, 7:1-17; 10:1-11:14; 14:1-20; 15:1-4; 19:1-10, 21:9-22:5). Of the 28 references to the lamb, 22 appear in those sections. I claim that those scenes are meant to remind persecuted Christians of heavenly realities and encourage them to imitate the Lamb in the face of evil powers. Significantly, in those passages directly related to wrath (the trumpets, bowls and 19:11-21:8) there are zero references to the Lamb. I think the reason for this is obvious, in the wrath scenes Christians are not given a model of imitation. Rather, they are only given a vision of justice to comfort them in their suffering.
Theological Upshot
I think Revelation gives Pacifists what they really want: human pacifism; but it also gives non-pacifists what they really want: real justice. I believe that when pacifism turns into idolatry bad consequences can follow just as much as anything idolatrous.
Saturday, July 3, 2010
Jesus the Divine Warrior: Violence in the NT
Introduction
Critics of religion will point out that religion, Christianity included, fosters violence. It behooves Christians to be prepared to answer those critics and persons from other faiths who will defend their violence by pointing out the violence in the Bible, even if this gambit commits the fallacy of tu quoque. I don’t think Christians can easily make some sort of Old Testament/New Testament distinction, for while it is true that in the Old Testament God is often viewed as a Divine Warrior, it is equally true that in the New Testament (Revelation) Jesus is also viewed as a Divine Warrior. I intend to assess the theological significance of the divine violence we find in Revelation. I intend to show that the divine violence in Revelation is of a specific sort and in no way justifies human violence in the here and now.
The Basic Timeline in Revelation
Without argument I claim that there are three basic time divisions in Revelation:
1. Tribulation and Persecution (directed against Christians but also includes wrath against the persecutors, since sin tends to bring about its own punishment)
2. Wrath and Judgment (directed against the persecutors of the Christians)
3. Eschatological Salvation (for the persecuted Christians)
I take it that certain passages rehearse the same basic storyline:
1:9-3:22 (7 letters)
4:1-8:5 (7 seals)
8:6-11:19 (7 trumpets)
12:1-15:4
15:5-16:21 (7 bowls)
19:11-21:8
7 Letters (1:9-3:22)
This section ties to 19:11-21:8 in a sort of promise-fulfillment relationship. In the initial vision John sees Jesus with a sharp two-edged sword coming out of his mouth. Some interpreters take this sword to represent “words” since it comes from the mouth and so the violent image would be only figurative. However, it has also been noted that a short Roman sword resembled a tongue. Furthermore, this tongue/sword functions elsewhere in Revelation in equally violent imagery:
2:16: repent therefore, but if not I will come to you soon and war with them by the sword of my mouth.
19:15 and out of his mouth goes forth a sharp sword with which to strike down the nations.
19:21 and the rest were killed with the sword of the one sitting on the horse, the sword that came from his mouth.
Since the letters are tied to 19:11-21:8, it is of importance that the latter section concerns Jesus’ return and his armies and does not involve human violence at all.
Another violent image in the letters involves the promise to the conquerors in the church of Thyatira that they will rule the nations with an iron rod, as vessels of pottery are broken (2:27). However, this scene again links up with 19:11-21:8 and there Jesus rules (shepherds) the nations with a rod of iron (19:15). It follows that when the conquerors rule the nations it refers to the time after Jesus’ return and not to the here and now (see 20:4-6).
Finally, and again in the letter to Thyatira, we read that Jesus will kill the “children” (i.e. followers) of the false prophetess Jezebel if they do not repent (2:23). This graphic image probably pertains to the Last Judgment and we are not told how Jesus will kill or how Jesus is involved in the process. The image is probably meant to foster repentance and there is really nothing unusual that the unrighteous suffer death at the Last Judgment.
7 Seals
The seven seals appear on a scroll with writing on the inside and on the back; some scholars take these to be the trumpet and bowl plagues respectively. It should not be forgotten that the seals are opened by Jesus. However, this may only mean that the plagues of the seals are under divine authorization even if they are not divinely willed. This is likely given that the divine passive (“it was given”) occurs throughout the seals and considering that the agents in the seals are most likely evil themselves. For example, in 6:8 Death and Hades are mentioned but these same two appear later to be demonic actors (20:14). Therefore, the violence of the seals need not be attributed to divine action, even if they further God’s plans.
Those plans seem to involve judgment for the persecution of Christians. In the fifth seal, the martyrs ask when God will judge and avenge their blood. The context seems to show that the plagues are on account of the persecution of the Christians. The sixth seal, the great day of divine wrath, follows this prayer in the fifth seal and therefore suggests that the great end-time battle is in response to the suffering of Christians. This also suggests that there are two stages: tribulation and persecution (the “short time”) involving the first five seals and wrath and judgment involving the sixth seal.
The seventh seal introduces the seven angels who are given seven trumpets. These angels could also be the angels involved in the bowl plagues and that they stand before God again highlights that the trumpets and bowls are under God’s authorization, even if he is not implicated in the actual violence.
7 Trumpets
The seven trumpets are introduced by an angelic symbolic event that shows their intent. In 8:3-5, an angel (who stands at the altar before the throne—which proves this angel is not demonic) takes a censer filled with the prayers of the saints (see the fifth seal) and fills it with fire and throws it on the earth. The implication is that the trumpet plagues are in response to the suffering of Christians.
The fifth trumpet features the violence of the locusts. That the divine passive occurs in this section (9:1,3,5) and that the angel ruling the locusts appears to be demonic, shows that the violence here is not God’s doing but under his authority. God allows evil to punish itself. The sixth trumpet also appears to involve demonic agents (the four angels) but they are summoned by a voice from the altar before God who tells the angel with the sixth trumpet to release the four demonic angels.
The seventh trumpet features the 24 elders who sing that God will destroy the destroyers of the earth. However, we are not told how God would do this.
12:1-15:4
The divine passive (“it was given”) appears in this section too (13:5, 7, 14, 15) which again shows that the violence is not willed by God but is perpetrated by evil agents under God’s authority.
Many scholars take the 144,000 in chapter 14 to be a militaristic image, however, we are not told how they fight and they are no longer in the here and now as they probably have already been martyred. On this score, this section has a passage that best encapsulates the attitude that Christians ought to have in the face of violence (13:10): if anyone is to go into captivity, into captivity he goes; if anyone is to be killed by the sword, he by the sword is to be killed.
This section includes some passages that are not kind to the unrighteous. They will:
• Drink of the wine of God’s wrath (14:10)
• Tormented by fire and sulfur before the holy angels and before the lamb (14:10)
The unrighteous will be gathered and thrown into the winepress of the wrath of God. This violence is done by angels and is at the final Judgment.
7 Bowls
The bowls evoke the bowl which contains the prayers of the saints (5:8) and the smoke in the opening scene also evokes the prayers of the saints (8:2-5). This would indicate that the bowls are in response to the suffering of the saints. Again, the bowls are commissioned by a voice from the temple and explicitly represent the wrath of God. The reason for the bowls is also explicitly stated: because they have shed the blood of the saints and prophets (16:6). None of the violence in this section is said to implicate God.
19:11-21:8
This section contains the image of Jesus as a Divine Warrior. However, the timing of the violence is at the end of time and does not involve humans in the here and now. Jesus is accompanied by an army but this army is explicitly said to be in heaven.
In 19:13, we are told that Jesus’ is wearing a garment dipped in blood. This evokes Isaiah 63:3 where God’s garments are stained by the blood of his enemies. Some scholars believe that the blood here refers to Jesus’ crucifixion because Jesus’ garment is already stained before he enters battle (even though the winepress imagery is used two verses later!). More likely is the theory that the blood refers to the martyrdom of his followers and Jesus’ martyrdom would be included in this. In this way, the blood would be a reason why Jesus is warring with the enemies.
Conclusion
The divine violence in Revelation is in response to the violence committed against Christians. This is a clue as to the purpose of the book of Revelation. Christians are not to resort to violence in the here and now because vengeance will be had by divine powers at the end. Also, significantly, most of the divine violence is attributed to angels and not to God directly. Interestingly, Jesus’ reference to violence in the gospels follows this pattern. Violence is relegated to the end (final judgment) and is usually attributed to angels (see Matthew 8:11-12//Luke 13:28-29; Mt. 24:45-51//Lk. 12:42-46; Mt. 25:14-30//Lk. 19:11-27; Mt. 22:2-14//Lk. 14:16-24; Mt. 13:24-30, 36-43, 47-50; 7:19).
Critics of religion will point out that religion, Christianity included, fosters violence. It behooves Christians to be prepared to answer those critics and persons from other faiths who will defend their violence by pointing out the violence in the Bible, even if this gambit commits the fallacy of tu quoque. I don’t think Christians can easily make some sort of Old Testament/New Testament distinction, for while it is true that in the Old Testament God is often viewed as a Divine Warrior, it is equally true that in the New Testament (Revelation) Jesus is also viewed as a Divine Warrior. I intend to assess the theological significance of the divine violence we find in Revelation. I intend to show that the divine violence in Revelation is of a specific sort and in no way justifies human violence in the here and now.
The Basic Timeline in Revelation
Without argument I claim that there are three basic time divisions in Revelation:
1. Tribulation and Persecution (directed against Christians but also includes wrath against the persecutors, since sin tends to bring about its own punishment)
2. Wrath and Judgment (directed against the persecutors of the Christians)
3. Eschatological Salvation (for the persecuted Christians)
I take it that certain passages rehearse the same basic storyline:
1:9-3:22 (7 letters)
4:1-8:5 (7 seals)
8:6-11:19 (7 trumpets)
12:1-15:4
15:5-16:21 (7 bowls)
19:11-21:8
7 Letters (1:9-3:22)
This section ties to 19:11-21:8 in a sort of promise-fulfillment relationship. In the initial vision John sees Jesus with a sharp two-edged sword coming out of his mouth. Some interpreters take this sword to represent “words” since it comes from the mouth and so the violent image would be only figurative. However, it has also been noted that a short Roman sword resembled a tongue. Furthermore, this tongue/sword functions elsewhere in Revelation in equally violent imagery:
2:16: repent therefore, but if not I will come to you soon and war with them by the sword of my mouth.
19:15 and out of his mouth goes forth a sharp sword with which to strike down the nations.
19:21 and the rest were killed with the sword of the one sitting on the horse, the sword that came from his mouth.
Since the letters are tied to 19:11-21:8, it is of importance that the latter section concerns Jesus’ return and his armies and does not involve human violence at all.
Another violent image in the letters involves the promise to the conquerors in the church of Thyatira that they will rule the nations with an iron rod, as vessels of pottery are broken (2:27). However, this scene again links up with 19:11-21:8 and there Jesus rules (shepherds) the nations with a rod of iron (19:15). It follows that when the conquerors rule the nations it refers to the time after Jesus’ return and not to the here and now (see 20:4-6).
Finally, and again in the letter to Thyatira, we read that Jesus will kill the “children” (i.e. followers) of the false prophetess Jezebel if they do not repent (2:23). This graphic image probably pertains to the Last Judgment and we are not told how Jesus will kill or how Jesus is involved in the process. The image is probably meant to foster repentance and there is really nothing unusual that the unrighteous suffer death at the Last Judgment.
7 Seals
The seven seals appear on a scroll with writing on the inside and on the back; some scholars take these to be the trumpet and bowl plagues respectively. It should not be forgotten that the seals are opened by Jesus. However, this may only mean that the plagues of the seals are under divine authorization even if they are not divinely willed. This is likely given that the divine passive (“it was given”) occurs throughout the seals and considering that the agents in the seals are most likely evil themselves. For example, in 6:8 Death and Hades are mentioned but these same two appear later to be demonic actors (20:14). Therefore, the violence of the seals need not be attributed to divine action, even if they further God’s plans.
Those plans seem to involve judgment for the persecution of Christians. In the fifth seal, the martyrs ask when God will judge and avenge their blood. The context seems to show that the plagues are on account of the persecution of the Christians. The sixth seal, the great day of divine wrath, follows this prayer in the fifth seal and therefore suggests that the great end-time battle is in response to the suffering of Christians. This also suggests that there are two stages: tribulation and persecution (the “short time”) involving the first five seals and wrath and judgment involving the sixth seal.
The seventh seal introduces the seven angels who are given seven trumpets. These angels could also be the angels involved in the bowl plagues and that they stand before God again highlights that the trumpets and bowls are under God’s authorization, even if he is not implicated in the actual violence.
7 Trumpets
The seven trumpets are introduced by an angelic symbolic event that shows their intent. In 8:3-5, an angel (who stands at the altar before the throne—which proves this angel is not demonic) takes a censer filled with the prayers of the saints (see the fifth seal) and fills it with fire and throws it on the earth. The implication is that the trumpet plagues are in response to the suffering of Christians.
The fifth trumpet features the violence of the locusts. That the divine passive occurs in this section (9:1,3,5) and that the angel ruling the locusts appears to be demonic, shows that the violence here is not God’s doing but under his authority. God allows evil to punish itself. The sixth trumpet also appears to involve demonic agents (the four angels) but they are summoned by a voice from the altar before God who tells the angel with the sixth trumpet to release the four demonic angels.
The seventh trumpet features the 24 elders who sing that God will destroy the destroyers of the earth. However, we are not told how God would do this.
12:1-15:4
The divine passive (“it was given”) appears in this section too (13:5, 7, 14, 15) which again shows that the violence is not willed by God but is perpetrated by evil agents under God’s authority.
Many scholars take the 144,000 in chapter 14 to be a militaristic image, however, we are not told how they fight and they are no longer in the here and now as they probably have already been martyred. On this score, this section has a passage that best encapsulates the attitude that Christians ought to have in the face of violence (13:10): if anyone is to go into captivity, into captivity he goes; if anyone is to be killed by the sword, he by the sword is to be killed.
This section includes some passages that are not kind to the unrighteous. They will:
• Drink of the wine of God’s wrath (14:10)
• Tormented by fire and sulfur before the holy angels and before the lamb (14:10)
The unrighteous will be gathered and thrown into the winepress of the wrath of God. This violence is done by angels and is at the final Judgment.
7 Bowls
The bowls evoke the bowl which contains the prayers of the saints (5:8) and the smoke in the opening scene also evokes the prayers of the saints (8:2-5). This would indicate that the bowls are in response to the suffering of the saints. Again, the bowls are commissioned by a voice from the temple and explicitly represent the wrath of God. The reason for the bowls is also explicitly stated: because they have shed the blood of the saints and prophets (16:6). None of the violence in this section is said to implicate God.
19:11-21:8
This section contains the image of Jesus as a Divine Warrior. However, the timing of the violence is at the end of time and does not involve humans in the here and now. Jesus is accompanied by an army but this army is explicitly said to be in heaven.
In 19:13, we are told that Jesus’ is wearing a garment dipped in blood. This evokes Isaiah 63:3 where God’s garments are stained by the blood of his enemies. Some scholars believe that the blood here refers to Jesus’ crucifixion because Jesus’ garment is already stained before he enters battle (even though the winepress imagery is used two verses later!). More likely is the theory that the blood refers to the martyrdom of his followers and Jesus’ martyrdom would be included in this. In this way, the blood would be a reason why Jesus is warring with the enemies.
Conclusion
The divine violence in Revelation is in response to the violence committed against Christians. This is a clue as to the purpose of the book of Revelation. Christians are not to resort to violence in the here and now because vengeance will be had by divine powers at the end. Also, significantly, most of the divine violence is attributed to angels and not to God directly. Interestingly, Jesus’ reference to violence in the gospels follows this pattern. Violence is relegated to the end (final judgment) and is usually attributed to angels (see Matthew 8:11-12//Luke 13:28-29; Mt. 24:45-51//Lk. 12:42-46; Mt. 25:14-30//Lk. 19:11-27; Mt. 22:2-14//Lk. 14:16-24; Mt. 13:24-30, 36-43, 47-50; 7:19).
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